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The world around us is full of variety.

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Different materials, different textures;
how did they all arise?

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I helped to show that
the universe had a simple beginning,

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as a single point in the big bang

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The guestion is, how did everything
we see get made from that?

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Science has found ways to find out...

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...how things began

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We cosmologists we try to recreate
the history of the universe

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in a sense very much like an archaeologist

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We have some clues about the
universe as it was a long time ago

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And based on those clues we try

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to trace back its history to as close
to the beginning as... possible

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We can push back the frontier of
what we know of the universe

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to very very close
to zero time eguals zero

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At that time the universe
was indeed simple

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A tiny point from
which everything exploded

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in a giant burst of energy
we call the Big Bang

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But that in itself does not
explain the cosmic alchemy that

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created galaxies and stars,
our planet and even ourselves

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The matter that makes up
all this is tangible stuff,

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not the heat and power of an explosion

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And its infinite variety suggests the
very opposite of a simple beginning

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But for the big bang to have
made everything we know,

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every single piece of
matter in the universe

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must have evolved from one primal source

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Centuries ago...

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the first alchemists believed

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they could discover the way
everything in the universe was made

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They called it transmutation

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To the alchemist the process of alchemy
was almost as important as the goal

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some alchemists would say if
I can see the secrets of creation...

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...in my work, if I can
look into my vessel and see

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...the mysteries of the creation unfolding
then that is the most significant thing

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The man who lived here at Owlpen Manor
was called Thomas Daunt the 7 th...

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...and he was the last of
a long line of alchemists

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Alchemy is about the search to make gold.

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Its about taking some primal substance and
subjecting it to various operations...

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...which change the
substance to eventually

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become the most perfect
substance of all, gold

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The alchemists believed that

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energy could transform one
kind of matter into another

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And that everything
in the universe could be

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made from rearranging four
fundamental elements

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Alchemists took on board...

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...the Greek idea of
the elements which was that

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...everything in the universe is composed

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of the four elements
earth water fire and air

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...Earth is seen as giving
form to things giving substance

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Water is like a universal solvent,
it connects it flows

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...it dissolves things

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Fire brings energy and light and heat.
It helps to create the...

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vital inner fire that
everything is said to have

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And air gives some space
it gives some movement

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It is... the medium of
communication between things

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Alchemists followed the line that

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if you shift around that balance
of elements, that if you

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change if you change those proportions

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then you'll change the actual identity
of the substance you've got

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The alchemists believed that
everything on earth or

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in the heavens came from different
combinations of these four basic elements

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This sense that

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everything might have a common origin
would prove uncannily accurate

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But by the end of the 17 th century

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the alchemists vision seemed too
dependent on mysticism to be believed

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Thomas Daunt...

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lived in the 18th century
so he was practising...

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...very late for an alchemist
really because the so called

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modern scientific view of
the world had taken hold by then

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This age of reason

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wanted less magic

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and more experimental proof

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A new breed of scientists thought
the alchemists practised a mysterious

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and dangerous form of witchcraft

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That's possibly why Thomas Daunt

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got himself a rather bad reputation
locally. He was thought of as a... magician

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After his death the little room

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where he worked was sealed up along
with all his books and papers

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But local people got rather about this
too in case it was going to have an even,

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an evil influence so they got summoned

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the parson to open the doors
and burn the books

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When the parson burnt the books
a flock of birds flew out

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The attitude of the new
scientists coming along...

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...disagreed with the practices of alchemy

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but the vision of it that
everything has come from one source,

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that there is a basic elemental
form to life and that

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you can actually rearrange
the structure of matter seems

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very pertinent to science today

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Mystic beliefs and a greed for gold
are not a good basis for science

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The alchemists had little interest
in how matter was created

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when the universe began

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But the idea of transmutation,

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allowing all varieties of matter
to evolve from the primal source,

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was, perhaps accidentally,
a step in the right direction

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The alchemists established technigues
for breaking down and studying matter,

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which were passed on

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when alchemy gave way to the
more rational study of chemistry

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In the mid nineteenth century,

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in the Siberian glass factory
run by his mother...

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...a Russian child marvelled
at chemistry at work

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He was Dmitri Mendeleev

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Mendeleev wrote in his diary
that first impressions of

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...chemistry has got just at
this glass factory having seen

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these combinations how
the glass is formed and

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how the addition of guite different
salts changed the colour of the glass

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The industrial revolution-and processes
like the mass production of glass-

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...created a practical need to
understand more precisely

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what things were made of

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The new chemists soon left behind the
Greek vision of only four elements-

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...earth, air, fire, and water

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In their experiments

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they reduced complex chemicals
to parts which seemed fundamental

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These simpler parts

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have been called elements so that

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there were absolutely no possibility
to divide them further

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In Mendeleev's time, chemists

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...believed there were about
65 elements-including gases

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liguids and solids

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They thought...

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...each element had unigue properties

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which would be present in
every one of their atoms. An atom...

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...from the Greek word for uncutable,

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was as small as you could go
in dividing up any element

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The atom was thought to be fundamental.
But before Mendeleev got to grips...

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with these ideas,
the glass factory caught fire

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Well Mendeleev has got
his first acguaintance

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with chemistry at the glass factory

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But well suddenly the factory was burned

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So the only hope of his mother was
to give education to her youngest son...

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That's why she took him
on a very long journey

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to St Petersburg from
the middle of Siberia

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The young Mendeleev and
his mother travelled

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one thousand four hundred
miles across Russia

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to enrol him at Saint
Petersburg University

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In a few years he became one of
Russia's most prominent chemists

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By then, scientists felt that
one element differed from another

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because of differences
in the nature of their atoms

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They'd seen that a large
amount of one element

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could weigh the same amount
as a small amount of another;

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so their atoms had to
have different weights

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Mendeleev wondered whether the weight of

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each element's atom might have
an even deeper significance

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So what was important that

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Mendeleev has associated the
changes in properties of elements

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This uh changes from metallic
character to non-metallic character

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just with the changes in atomic weight.
So this was his revolution

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Mendeleev was convinced

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there was an underlying order
to all the elements on the earth

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One night in 1869, he shut
himself into his cottage by...

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...the Black Sea determined to
discover the secret pattern of matter

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Mendeleev was very fond
of patience games and

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that's why he has used
pieces of paper as cards

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He tried to move them on the table with
the idea to find an initial arrangement

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This idea to order them with
the increase of their atomic weight

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has come to his mind
only early in the morning

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As he shuffled the cards
he became convinced...

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he could create a logical order.
Hydrogen had the lightest atoms...

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and so came first

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As he worked his way through to uranium,
at the time the heaviest known...

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element, he grouped together...

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any elements with
similar chemical properties

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With elements in the same group,

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the difference between one atomic weight
and the next was almost the same...

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every time

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Where the pattern was broken,

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Mendeleev predicted that in time

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an element would be discovered to fill
in the gap.

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In Russia, Mendeleev's...

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arrangement of elements was
called the Mendeleev table

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We know it as the Periodic table

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The periodic table suggested
for the first time

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a fundamental pattern for
the different elements

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Although no one realised it then,

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Mendeleev was pointing towards a common
origin for all matter in the universe

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His work was the basis for
all future developments

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Let us say he put so many guestions that
a lot of scientists has tried to answer

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and by this manner he of course stimulated

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the development of idea of evolution of
elements er well the origin of matter

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Mendeleev urged others to study uranium

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But he could not have imagined
its cosmic significance

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It would lead us to
the inner secrets of the atom

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and a possible primal source
of everthing in the universe

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The stage was set for the birth
of particle physics and

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the pioneering work on radiation

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of a young french scientist Marie Curie

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I am the daughter of Irene and
Frederik Joliot Curie and

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the grand daughter of
Pierre and Marie Curie

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In 1897, Marie Sklodowska
was a Polish student studying in Paris,

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when she met and married the well
known physicist Pierre Curie.

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At the time she was trying to find
a subject for her doctoral thesis

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Just months before, a French scientist...

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Henri Becguerel had made
an extraordinary... discovery

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Beguerel placed some uranium
on top of a photographic plate

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The plate was wrapped in thick paper,
no light could get in.

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The uranium and the plate
were put in a draw

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Three days later Beguerel
developed the plate and examined it

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He found that it had been
mysteriously effected

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He concluded that the uranium...

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must be emitting some invisible rays,

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and that these had fogged
the photographic plate...

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Unlike the alchemists nineteenth century
scientists had always believed that

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an element could never be
fundamentally altered or changed

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But Beguerel's discovery seemed to
contradict this basic assumption

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The uranium was not reacting with
any other chemical yet on its own

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it was releasing a new and
invisible kind of energy

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With Beguerel's discovery, Marie Curie
had found a subject for her thesis

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She decided to try and find a way to
measure the power of the rays from uranium

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Beguerel had already shown that

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they could conduct an electric
current through air

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but the strength of the current
was less than a single amp

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It's something ten to minus eleven smaller

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Try to understand what is
ten to minus eleven smaller

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Divide by ten and ten and ten and see that

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it is really the kind of thing you
cannot measure with ordinary apparatus

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at all so you have to build a special one

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So she did.

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At one end of
this piece of eguipment

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Marie Curie allowed the rays
from a sample of uranium to carry

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as big an electrical current as it
could from one metal plate to the other

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At the other end she put stress on
a special kind of crystal, using weights,

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to generate a current whose
strength she could measure

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The bigger the weight she used,
the stronger the current would be

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If the pointer settled on zero
Marie Curie knew that the current...

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from the uranium matched the currents...
she had produced with the weights

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She... succeeded in calculating
the energy... from the uranium

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At a million millionth of an amp

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it was extraordinary... achievement

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The Curies then wanted to see
if anything else would give off rays

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with a similar power to uranium

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They decided to test pitchblende,

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the crude material from
which uranium had been extracted

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Unrefined it was expected to give off
a much smaller charge than pure uranium

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What they found amazed them

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And what happens...
was that the current was much higher

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At least four times higher
than with uranium,

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with the corresponding amount of uranium

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And that was incredible
because none of the impurities

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or elements participating in pitchblende

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have shown any sign of
having the same property

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The Curies separated out the
chemicals in the pitchblende,

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and eventually found that

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the much larger current coming from
it was caused by two new elements

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00:20:54,720 --> 00:20:59,589
The Curies called the first polonium,
after Marie's home country Poland

242
00:21:06,131 --> 00:21:09,100
They called the second element radium

243
00:21:13,705 --> 00:21:18,039
Before the discovery
the Curies have discussed

244
00:21:18,143 --> 00:21:22,910
about the possible physical
properties of the new elements

245
00:21:23,115 --> 00:21:30,112
And Pierre Curie have told
I wish it have a beautiful colour

246
00:21:30,889 --> 00:21:36,452
So what they found that
with enough amount of radium,

247
00:21:36,561 --> 00:21:43,490
it emit light, more beautiful
than just being a beautiful colour

248
00:21:45,771 --> 00:21:52,176
So sometimes they come back in the
evening just to see the radium lighting

249
00:21:52,444 --> 00:21:55,242
and just look at it in the evening

250
00:21:56,348 --> 00:21:58,282
It was not the best thing to do

251
00:22:02,387 --> 00:22:07,086
Radium was so highly radio-active
that it was extremely dangerous

252
00:22:13,765 --> 00:22:16,495
Marie Curie eventually
died from leukaemia,

253
00:22:17,002 --> 00:22:20,802
almost certainly as a result
of her exposure to radiation

254
00:22:25,077 --> 00:22:28,979
But while the Curie's had managed
to measure the radiation that

255
00:22:29,081 --> 00:22:33,745
these elements gave off they
were no closer to understanding

256
00:22:33,885 --> 00:22:36,353
what the radiation actually was...

257
00:22:38,090 --> 00:22:43,426
That was left to a young New Zealand
scientist Ernest Rutherford

258
00:23:07,753 --> 00:23:10,881
In 1899 Rutherford set out to understand

259
00:23:10,989 --> 00:23:13,685
what was happening when
rays came out of radium

260
00:23:13,925 --> 00:23:16,826
helped by his partner, Frederick Soddy

261
00:23:17,496 --> 00:23:24,129
They set up a physical experiment
in which they tried to measure

262
00:23:24,369 --> 00:23:33,437
the rate at which this emanation
would defuse from one point to another

263
00:23:34,379 --> 00:23:36,904
If the emanation was radium
in vapour form

264
00:23:37,048 --> 00:23:39,414
it would have a similar
atomic weight to radium

265
00:23:40,018 --> 00:23:42,714
but it turned out to be vastly different

266
00:23:43,455 --> 00:23:49,519
The emanation could not possibly be
radium in vapour form in the way that

267
00:23:49,628 --> 00:23:52,119
say mercury gives off a vapour

268
00:23:52,230 --> 00:23:55,597
Therefore it had to be
something different,

269
00:23:55,734 --> 00:24:01,695
and the only rational conclusion
was that one element, radium,

270
00:24:01,907 --> 00:24:07,743
was somehow producing another
element which was not radium vapour

271
00:24:07,846 --> 00:24:12,044
but was a completely different element
with a different atomic weight

272
00:24:16,421 --> 00:24:19,822
Rutherford and Soddy had discovered
the alchemist's dream of

273
00:24:19,925 --> 00:24:23,156
transmutation happening spontaneously

274
00:24:24,362 --> 00:24:27,889
One element was naturally
being transformed into another,

275
00:24:28,066 --> 00:24:30,330
releasing energy in the process

276
00:24:31,937 --> 00:24:34,497
If one element could naturally
arise from another

277
00:24:34,739 --> 00:24:40,109
perhaps all the variety of matter in the
universe could evolve from a single source

278
00:24:40,779 --> 00:24:44,840
But why should energy be
released in the process?

279
00:24:49,488 --> 00:24:52,286
The answer was surprisingly close to hand

280
00:24:53,558 --> 00:24:57,187
In 1905, in his Special
Theory of Relativity,

281
00:24:57,329 --> 00:25:00,958
a German scientist published
an extraordinary eguation

282
00:25:01,633 --> 00:25:07,367
He was Albert Einstein;
and the eguation was E = mc2.

283
00:25:09,808 --> 00:25:13,300
One of the major guestions...
in cosmology and astrophysics

284
00:25:13,678 --> 00:25:18,012
is how the chemical elements
came to be... in the universe

285
00:25:19,417 --> 00:25:23,911
It was not immediately clear
how E = mc2 would help

286
00:25:24,389 --> 00:25:29,122
lts predictions seemed somewhat bizarre,
...apparently suggesting that matter,

287
00:25:29,327 --> 00:25:33,661
like heat and light, is just
another manifestation of energy

288
00:25:39,804 --> 00:25:43,171
So energy is never lost or infact gained

289
00:25:43,375 --> 00:25:46,208
its just transformed from
one form into another

290
00:25:48,013 --> 00:25:50,948
You cant actually prove that
mass can completely be converted

291
00:25:51,049 --> 00:25:53,313
into energy using special relativity...

292
00:25:53,418 --> 00:25:59,379
...but Einstein made that conceptual leap
and conjectured that was in fact true

293
00:26:02,394 --> 00:26:04,362
According to Einstein's eguation,

294
00:26:04,596 --> 00:26:09,295
matter was a bit like a battery;
a form of stored energy

295
00:26:09,634 --> 00:26:15,163
But could this ever be proved; and if so,
would it help explain the origin of...

296
00:26:15,273 --> 00:26:17,298
everything in the universe?

297
00:26:19,311 --> 00:26:20,505
Rutherford resolved to probe...

298
00:26:20,612 --> 00:26:23,274
...more deeply into the heart of the atom

299
00:26:26,685 --> 00:26:30,382
We need to discover the inner
workings of the atom, if we are

300
00:26:30,488 --> 00:26:35,391
...to understand how matter was made
at the beginning of the universe

301
00:26:36,361 --> 00:26:40,229
I would have taken a theoretical
approach to the problem...

302
00:26:41,232 --> 00:26:46,761
...But Rutherford was an out and out...
...experimentalist. He simply collected

303
00:26:46,871 --> 00:26:52,138
...some old tubes and wires, and built
a machine to break the atom apart

304
00:27:02,420 --> 00:27:06,379
Sixty years later, Rutherford
has an American disciple

305
00:27:06,992 --> 00:27:09,426
In the true tradition
of particle physics...

306
00:27:09,527 --> 00:27:11,552
...I hung out at junkyards...

307
00:27:11,763 --> 00:27:15,199
...to collect metal and
odd bit of electronics

308
00:27:15,367 --> 00:27:18,097
...that were just thrown away
by everyone else...

309
00:27:18,203 --> 00:27:19,830
...but were very important to me

310
00:27:23,008 --> 00:27:24,270
In Memphis, Tennessee,

311
00:27:24,376 --> 00:27:26,173
20 year old Fred Neill goes hunting for

312
00:27:26,277 --> 00:27:30,077
scrap to help him re-stage
Rutherford's experiments

313
00:27:30,482 --> 00:27:31,915
He used radium...

314
00:27:32,017 --> 00:27:37,512
...which was a newly discovered element
at the time and he used metal cans,

315
00:27:37,822 --> 00:27:41,258
glass tubes, huge amounts of wire and

316
00:27:41,359 --> 00:27:45,227
...all sorts of eclectic bits that
he collected from various places

317
00:27:51,670 --> 00:27:55,299
Most scrapyards purchase
cars and... crush them up

318
00:27:57,108 --> 00:28:01,875
This scrapyard specifically
purchases from the US military

319
00:28:02,113 --> 00:28:03,774
...all of their surplus

320
00:28:06,518 --> 00:28:12,218
They have electronic bits from
world war 2, planes anything

321
00:28:18,029 --> 00:28:19,860
They have everything from...

322
00:28:21,232 --> 00:28:23,860
bolts to battleships literally

323
00:28:26,538 --> 00:28:28,165
Er How much do you want
for this old thing?

324
00:28:31,342 --> 00:28:35,176
One of Rutherford's key experiments
involved examining the particles

325
00:28:35,280 --> 00:28:38,113
he knew were part of
the emanation from radium

326
00:28:42,454 --> 00:28:45,355
Rutherford knew that these particles
were coming off of the radium

327
00:28:45,457 --> 00:28:46,890
with an certain amount of speed

328
00:28:51,129 --> 00:28:53,256
So he aimed the particles
that were coming off of

329
00:28:53,364 --> 00:28:56,629
the radium at a piece of gold foil

330
00:28:58,570 --> 00:29:02,631
And he found that some of the particles
were bouncing off of the gold foil

331
00:29:05,310 --> 00:29:07,801
Rutherford was guoted saying this was some

332
00:29:07,912 --> 00:29:11,643
what like shooting a 15 inch shell
at a piece of tissue paper

333
00:29:11,816 --> 00:29:13,443
and having it bounce back and hit you

334
00:29:14,686 --> 00:29:18,087
Well this meant that there was some
kind of immense force inside the atom

335
00:29:21,426 --> 00:29:23,860
Discovering this force helped Rutherford

336
00:29:23,962 --> 00:29:26,726
complete his theoretical
picture of the atom

337
00:29:27,699 --> 00:29:33,604
He then determined to overcome this force,
break up the atom, and study its parts

338
00:29:37,375 --> 00:29:42,210
Fred Neill carefully followed Rutherford's
approach, and built his own atom smasher;

339
00:29:42,614 --> 00:29:45,549
starting with a safe way
to produce particles,

340
00:29:45,650 --> 00:29:49,450
rather than relying on the
dangerous radiation from radium

341
00:29:55,760 --> 00:30:01,027
My machine just like Rutherford's used...
electrical simulation of the emanations

342
00:30:01,132 --> 00:30:04,659
from the radium by heating up
a piece of metal electrically

343
00:30:07,238 --> 00:30:12,403
Now in order to make these move
I use electrostatic electricity

344
00:30:12,911 --> 00:30:16,540
Now Coulomb showed that particles that

345
00:30:16,648 --> 00:30:19,674
have a charge are attracted
to other opposite charge

346
00:30:19,851 --> 00:30:24,652
So what I do is I build up a huge
amount of charge just like a battery

347
00:30:25,056 --> 00:30:27,422
You hook up one end of
the tube to a battery and

348
00:30:27,525 --> 00:30:30,323
you hook up the other end of the tube
to the opposite pole of the battery

349
00:30:30,495 --> 00:30:34,693
...and you can make the particles move.
And they hit a target right here

350
00:30:35,066 --> 00:30:38,126
But in order to do that
they can't be hampered by anything

351
00:30:38,236 --> 00:30:40,170
on their journey to
the end of the target

352
00:30:40,805 --> 00:30:44,400
So to pull everything out that
might slow the particles down

353
00:30:44,642 --> 00:30:48,305
I have to take all of the air
out with this vacuum pump

354
00:30:51,649 --> 00:30:52,843
...Like so...

355
00:30:53,818 --> 00:30:57,151
Now what you see is particles
interacting with the air

356
00:30:57,355 --> 00:31:00,188
Which means I haven't
pulled out enough air out

357
00:31:00,859 --> 00:31:04,727
So after some amount of time
I've pulled out all of the air and

358
00:31:04,829 --> 00:31:08,663
the particles begin to move straight
to the target without any interaction

359
00:31:10,268 --> 00:31:14,500
There is now nothing inside except
the particles Fred Neill is firing,

360
00:31:14,672 --> 00:31:17,470
and whatever particles
they break out of the target

361
00:31:18,509 --> 00:31:21,740
You can detect them using
a tube just like this...

362
00:31:24,949 --> 00:31:29,318
I am only picking up particles from the
target because there is nothing else there

363
00:31:29,554 --> 00:31:33,991
There's only the particles coming from
the synthesised radium emanations

364
00:31:34,425 --> 00:31:36,188
and from the bits of the target

365
00:31:38,062 --> 00:31:39,893
But Fred Neill's Geiger counter was...

366
00:31:39,998 --> 00:31:44,492
...recording particles with a guarter of
the mass of the particles he is putting in

367
00:31:45,470 --> 00:31:48,928
Like Rutherford before him
he is splitting the atom.

368
00:31:53,544 --> 00:31:54,841
The Greek philosophers had said that

369
00:31:54,946 --> 00:31:59,406
the atom was this indivisible object
that was the building block of all things

370
00:32:00,018 --> 00:32:03,351
Well Rutherford found that
it most certainly is not

371
00:32:03,521 --> 00:32:05,512
The atom has building blocks of its own

372
00:32:06,324 --> 00:32:11,990
He found that there is a some huge amount
of energy held in electric charges that

373
00:32:12,096 --> 00:32:14,929
was somehow bound together
in the centre and that

374
00:32:15,033 --> 00:32:19,697
there was just this myriad of particles
that had never been known before

375
00:32:19,804 --> 00:32:21,772
That the atom was made up of huge numbers

376
00:32:21,873 --> 00:32:25,331
of bizarre odd things that
had never been seen

377
00:32:29,714 --> 00:32:33,946
Scientists soon found that if
they accelerated particles faster,

378
00:32:34,152 --> 00:32:39,351
then they could break up the atom still
further - into smaller and smaller parts

379
00:32:41,326 --> 00:32:42,953
...The evidence from particle

380
00:32:43,061 --> 00:32:47,521
...accelerators revealed a new
world of sub atomic physics

381
00:32:48,166 --> 00:32:52,762
It was now that the full significance
of Einstein's famous eguation,

382
00:32:52,971 --> 00:32:57,169
E=mc sguared, began to be realised

383
00:32:57,809 --> 00:33:00,744
Matter and energy were interchangeable

384
00:33:02,347 --> 00:33:05,111
The more energy is released
from particle collisions,

385
00:33:05,249 --> 00:33:08,241
the more the mass of the
particles is reduced

386
00:33:08,619 --> 00:33:10,814
Proof it seemed, that Einstein was right...

387
00:33:11,556 --> 00:33:16,152
...But a theoretician called Paul Dirac
had seen something else in the maths

388
00:33:17,195 --> 00:33:18,685
Paul Dirac held the...

389
00:33:18,796 --> 00:33:21,731
Lucasian chair of mathematics in Cambridge

390
00:33:21,899 --> 00:33:26,199
which was once held by Newton and
is currently held by Stephen Hawking

391
00:33:29,774 --> 00:33:32,504
Dirac made a prediction
which was hard to believe

392
00:33:33,244 --> 00:33:35,906
For Einstein's theory
to be right he argued,

393
00:33:36,147 --> 00:33:38,377
energy wouldn't just produce matter

394
00:33:38,850 --> 00:33:44,550
It also had to produce a perfect
mirror-image opposite; anti-matter

395
00:33:45,490 --> 00:33:48,584
And just as there were particles
which combine to form matter,

396
00:33:48,860 --> 00:33:52,591
there would be mirror image
anti-particles forming anti-matter

397
00:33:53,364 --> 00:33:57,095
This anti-matter would have
some extraordinary gualities

398
00:33:58,970 --> 00:34:00,028
The special gualities...

399
00:34:00,138 --> 00:34:01,332
that anti matter has is that

400
00:34:01,439 --> 00:34:05,170
it can completely annihilate
with matter to form energy

401
00:34:06,477 --> 00:34:09,469
It is only when matter interacts
with antimatter that

402
00:34:09,580 --> 00:34:16,952
all the mass can completely annihilate
and you can be left with only pure energy

403
00:34:29,267 --> 00:34:33,260
To begin with, anti-matter was
just a mathematical theory.

404
00:34:34,205 --> 00:34:41,134
It seemed to contradict common sense.
We live after all in a world of matter

405
00:34:48,586 --> 00:34:51,885
One way of thinking about matter
and anti matter is to think that

406
00:34:51,989 --> 00:34:57,086
you have two worlds which are mirror
images of each other.

407
00:35:00,298 --> 00:35:04,530
The guestion is what is this antimatter it
sounds very science-fiction like,

408
00:35:04,635 --> 00:35:07,160
it sounds very fanciful;
and it turns out that

409
00:35:07,271 --> 00:35:09,967
there is a very boring
aspect to antimatter and

410
00:35:10,074 --> 00:35:12,542
there is a very exciting
aspect to anti-matter

411
00:35:12,643 --> 00:35:14,167
So starting with the boring one,

412
00:35:14,612 --> 00:35:18,207
the boring one is that anti-matter
is very much like matter

413
00:35:18,516 --> 00:35:20,882
it really is basically the same thing

414
00:35:21,052 --> 00:35:23,748
Anti-matter does not go up with gravity

415
00:35:23,855 --> 00:35:26,153
it goes down with gravity
just like matter does

416
00:35:26,290 --> 00:35:30,590
The main difference between matter
and anti-matter is the electric charge

417
00:35:30,761 --> 00:35:34,060
So if you have a little particle
of matter such as an electron

418
00:35:34,232 --> 00:35:36,996
its anti matter particle
it's going to be a positron

419
00:35:37,101 --> 00:35:42,664
which will have a positive charge,
and so to each particle of matter

420
00:35:42,773 --> 00:35:46,436
there's going to be a particle of anti
matter with opposite electric charge

421
00:35:50,148 --> 00:35:52,082
The most exiting part is...

422
00:35:52,183 --> 00:35:57,143
...that when matter and anti-matter
come together they disappear

423
00:35:59,724 --> 00:36:04,161
They become something new they become
something they weren't before and

424
00:36:04,262 --> 00:36:06,787
what they became is just pure energy

425
00:36:12,670 --> 00:36:13,329
One of the beautiful...

426
00:36:13,437 --> 00:36:16,235
...conseguences of this
whole process of matter

427
00:36:16,340 --> 00:36:19,104
and anti matter disintegrating
into energy is that

428
00:36:19,210 --> 00:36:23,670
you could also out of energy
create matter and anti matter

429
00:36:24,582 --> 00:36:28,313
So the process is perfectly
reversible you can go both ways

430
00:36:34,091 --> 00:36:38,960
So in theory at least energy could
produce matter and anti-matter

431
00:36:39,597 --> 00:36:44,398
But then wouldn't they instantly meet
and annihilate back into energy?

432
00:36:47,471 --> 00:36:49,234
...lt seemed there could be whole...

433
00:36:49,340 --> 00:36:53,106
anti worlds and anti people,
made of anti -matter

434
00:36:53,611 --> 00:36:58,048
If you meet your anti partner,
don't kiss or shake hands

435
00:36:59,050 --> 00:37:02,679
You would both disappear in
a tremendous flash of light

436
00:37:05,256 --> 00:37:10,091
Could the reverse process, of energy
turning into matter and anti matter,

437
00:37:10,261 --> 00:37:12,422
have happened in the big bang?

438
00:37:13,431 --> 00:37:17,424
Was that where all the matter
in the universe came from?

439
00:37:18,469 --> 00:37:21,029
Dirac's theory had to be confirmed

440
00:37:21,739 --> 00:37:24,264
Anti matter had to be found somewhere,

441
00:37:24,442 --> 00:37:29,209
if only for an instant, before
it was annihilated by matter

442
00:37:33,918 --> 00:37:36,386
Shortly after Dirac's
proposal of anti-matter,

443
00:37:36,654 --> 00:37:42,786
scientists began to observe strange new
rays coming from space; cosmic rays...

444
00:37:43,427 --> 00:37:47,693
Perhaps these rays would somehow
reveal the elusive anti-matter

445
00:37:49,767 --> 00:37:50,893
They went to mountain tops

446
00:37:51,002 --> 00:37:53,835
because they were trying to get
as high up a possible so that

447
00:37:53,938 --> 00:37:57,305
they could get the cosmic rays before
they interacted with the atmosphere

448
00:38:02,380 --> 00:38:05,907
Cosmic rays come from anywhere
we know... in the galaxy

449
00:38:06,217 --> 00:38:07,548
And there are certain places

450
00:38:07,652 --> 00:38:10,712
they think they are coming from
other galaxies outside and

451
00:38:10,821 --> 00:38:13,517
we are not sure how much of
the universe they are coming from

452
00:38:22,466 --> 00:38:24,991
To see the mirror image
difference between matter and

453
00:38:25,102 --> 00:38:28,629
...anti-matter, scientists
used a cloud chamber,

454
00:38:28,839 --> 00:38:33,003
...a kind of trap which could
reveal particles by their movement

455
00:38:35,646 --> 00:38:39,138
All you have to have for a cloud chamber
is something you can see through...

456
00:38:39,283 --> 00:38:43,185
And then you have to have something
like alcohol that evaporates easily

457
00:38:44,789 --> 00:38:47,349
You put it on dry ice which makes
it really cold in the bottom

458
00:38:47,458 --> 00:38:51,258
so it becomes super saturated,
so its ready to form a cloud

459
00:38:51,529 --> 00:38:53,622
Whenever some particle
goes through there...

460
00:38:54,398 --> 00:38:58,334
and that makes a little
trail... of droplets

461
00:39:02,540 --> 00:39:03,768
This is the same kind of thing that happens thin

462
00:39:03,874 --> 00:39:05,842
when an aeroplane goes through the sky,

463
00:39:05,976 --> 00:39:10,538
that you see the water vapour trail
after the exhaust of the aeroplane

464
00:39:18,055 --> 00:39:20,888
They are very temporary trails
that are formed by cosmic rays

465
00:39:20,991 --> 00:39:24,427
or even radioactive particles
because the little droplets form

466
00:39:24,528 --> 00:39:27,554
and they fall down to the bottom
of the chamber due to gravity

467
00:39:27,665 --> 00:39:30,361
and so it just sort of wisp past there

468
00:39:32,803 --> 00:39:34,532
Supposedly on top of very high mountains

469
00:39:34,638 --> 00:39:38,870
you see about one cosmic ray
per sguare centimetre every second

470
00:39:39,977 --> 00:39:44,414
Near sea level you see far fewer than that
- maybe a few a minute.

471
00:39:47,385 --> 00:39:51,583
In 1932, an American physicist,
Carl Anderson

472
00:39:51,756 --> 00:39:54,782
set a cloud chamber between magnets
to deflect the path of a particle.

473
00:39:57,194 --> 00:40:00,357
If it bent one way,
it would be positively charged;

474
00:40:00,631 --> 00:40:03,156
the other way meant a negative charge

475
00:40:03,734 --> 00:40:08,671
And that in turn meant knowing whether the
particle was coming from above or below

476
00:40:09,340 --> 00:40:14,107
so he put a lead plate across the chamber
to slow the energetic particle down

477
00:40:14,845 --> 00:40:17,370
if you see a track going through you
don't know whether it came from above

478
00:40:17,481 --> 00:40:19,711
and went that way or from below
and went that way and its curving

479
00:40:19,817 --> 00:40:21,250
because it is a magnetic field

480
00:40:21,419 --> 00:40:24,877
so they put this plate in the middle and
they could tell by the curviture that

481
00:40:24,989 --> 00:40:29,619
it was more tightly curved it lost
energy so the magnetic field affected

482
00:40:29,727 --> 00:40:32,059
it more when it had less energy

483
00:40:34,265 --> 00:40:37,962
Anderson eventually saw
what Dirac had predicted

484
00:40:38,736 --> 00:40:41,830
With the slower half of
the track above the lead bar

485
00:40:42,173 --> 00:40:45,665
this particle had to be
coming from below

486
00:40:45,876 --> 00:40:49,073
which made it the mirror
image of a known particle

487
00:40:49,580 --> 00:40:53,175
It had to be its anti particle partner.

488
00:40:53,484 --> 00:40:55,714
Anti-matter existed

489
00:40:55,920 --> 00:40:57,649
When Anderson saw the first tracks

490
00:40:57,922 --> 00:40:59,753
this was really exciting and

491
00:40:59,857 --> 00:41:00,949
just sort of blew people's minds

492
00:41:01,058 --> 00:41:04,084
because they had not ever
seen antimatter before

493
00:41:04,261 --> 00:41:07,321
there was no evidence for it and
also this was the first particle

494
00:41:07,431 --> 00:41:09,558
they had ever seen that
was not found in an atom

495
00:41:10,167 --> 00:41:14,126
So even though Paul Dirac had predicted
there must some kind of a particle that

496
00:41:14,238 --> 00:41:16,672
was the opposite to the
electron nobody had believed

497
00:41:16,774 --> 00:41:19,675
or though it was possible
until they actually had tracks

498
00:41:30,154 --> 00:41:34,591
Today modern particle accelerators
can create anti-matter

499
00:41:34,692 --> 00:41:38,958
and matter to produce extraordinary
images of creation

500
00:41:51,909 --> 00:41:54,207
You may think that this is
some sort of beautiful art

501
00:41:54,311 --> 00:41:58,509
and it is in a sense an art...
but it is an art made by physicists

502
00:41:59,650 --> 00:42:03,814
What you have is a big snapshot
that captures in one moment

503
00:42:04,021 --> 00:42:07,821
all of these dense particles being
created and destroyed inside...

504
00:42:07,925 --> 00:42:10,894
...particle accelerators so it
may look like Jackson Pollock

505
00:42:10,995 --> 00:42:12,087
but it is in fact a computer

506
00:42:12,196 --> 00:42:18,431
...enhanced picture of a particle
collisions within a detector

507
00:42:20,371 --> 00:42:23,272
Each one of these particles
in a sense tells a story

508
00:42:23,440 --> 00:42:28,104
...or possible story of how the
universe was a long long... time ago

509
00:42:30,981 --> 00:42:32,539
These pictures show the collision of

510
00:42:32,650 --> 00:42:35,744
countless particles of
matter and anti-matter

511
00:42:37,087 --> 00:42:39,180
Hidden in the detail is the answer

512
00:42:39,290 --> 00:42:44,227
to how matter was formed out of
the pure energy of the big bang

513
00:42:45,262 --> 00:42:47,492
So here you have a detail of

514
00:42:47,598 --> 00:42:51,398
what people would see in a
detector in which you have the...

515
00:42:51,502 --> 00:42:53,094
debris of a little bang

516
00:42:53,270 --> 00:42:57,764
...creating matter and
anti matter out of energy...

517
00:42:58,576 --> 00:43:01,807
...and this is a photon and a photon
is a little bundle of energy

518
00:43:01,912 --> 00:43:06,042
that doesn't leave a track because
it doesn't have an electric charge...

519
00:43:06,216 --> 00:43:09,379
So it moves up here and
it collides with a particle

520
00:43:09,486 --> 00:43:14,685
and out of the strength of this collision
you have these two spirals coming out

521
00:43:14,825 --> 00:43:17,692
One of them being
a particle which is matter,

522
00:43:17,861 --> 00:43:21,957
and the other one being its
anti-matter cousin - its anti-particle

523
00:43:22,833 --> 00:43:25,461
And out of this collision
you have two tracks,

524
00:43:25,669 --> 00:43:28,695
this one that you can see
and then you have another one

525
00:43:28,806 --> 00:43:33,038
which is an invisible one which is
another photon, a bundle of energy

526
00:43:33,210 --> 00:43:36,270
You can see precisely that
this bundle of energy

527
00:43:36,480 --> 00:43:39,779
will eventually create matter
and anti-matter and

528
00:43:39,883 --> 00:43:43,512
this happens at this point guite
suddenly, when this photon

529
00:43:43,621 --> 00:43:48,558
gives birth in a sense to
an electron and a positron

530
00:43:49,493 --> 00:43:54,726
And that is a beautiful manifestation of
matter being created out of energy...

531
00:43:58,969 --> 00:44:07,001
It is in effect a miniature big bang,
energy forming matter and antimatter

532
00:44:08,579 --> 00:44:11,742
Well if matter and anti-matter
are essentially the same

533
00:44:11,849 --> 00:44:14,841
with opposite electric charges,
where is the anti- matter?

534
00:44:14,952 --> 00:44:16,943
How come the universe is made of matter

535
00:44:20,257 --> 00:44:25,194
...We go back to the laws that control
how particles and anti-particles interact,

536
00:44:25,629 --> 00:44:27,563
and those laws show that the universe

537
00:44:27,665 --> 00:44:31,157
is not perfectly symmetric
between matter and anti-matter

538
00:44:33,971 --> 00:44:39,500
The fact that we are here at all depends
on an extraordinary accident of nature

539
00:44:40,644 --> 00:44:44,774
If the universe was perfectly symmetric
between matter and antimatter

540
00:44:44,982 --> 00:44:48,850
we wouldn't be here because the universe
would just be a big sea of energy

541
00:44:49,019 --> 00:44:51,783
So the fact that the universe
is not perfectly symmetric

542
00:44:51,989 --> 00:44:54,719
is the ultimate reason for us to be here

543
00:44:59,930 --> 00:45:07,029
We now know enough to piece together
the story of how our universe evolved

544
00:45:11,275 --> 00:45:15,678
Now we have certain clues about how
the universe behaved in the beginning

545
00:45:16,814 --> 00:45:21,945
The universe that we know existed then,
was very rich there was a lot of energy,

546
00:45:22,553 --> 00:45:26,717
there was a lot of potentiality
for that energy to be translated

547
00:45:26,824 --> 00:45:30,351
into particles and anti-particles

548
00:45:30,894 --> 00:45:34,830
Then what we have is a picture of
the universe of many, many particles

549
00:45:34,965 --> 00:45:37,798
The elementary particles that are
the building blocks of matter,

550
00:45:38,001 --> 00:45:40,333
which are colliding with
each other at a frantic rate

551
00:45:40,537 --> 00:45:41,834
and they don't really bind

552
00:45:43,707 --> 00:45:46,141
All you have is a dance
of particles moving

553
00:45:46,243 --> 00:45:49,542
around the tremendous energies
colliding with each other and

554
00:45:49,646 --> 00:45:51,705
hence creating more particles and

555
00:45:51,815 --> 00:45:55,478
more energy out of particles in
this creation and destruction dance

556
00:46:02,092 --> 00:46:07,257
As the universe cools and expands
the particles stop colliding so strongly

557
00:46:07,364 --> 00:46:10,492
and so energetically and they have
more time to look at each other

558
00:46:10,601 --> 00:46:15,163
and perhaps bind and do
something. So at about one...

559
00:46:15,272 --> 00:46:19,470
...second of life the universe
started to make nuclei,

560
00:46:19,676 --> 00:46:23,476
that is protons and neutrons started to bind

561
00:46:27,384 --> 00:46:31,912
At about 300,000 years or
so atoms formed which means that

562
00:46:32,022 --> 00:46:36,356
the nuclei bind with the
electrons to form the atoms

563
00:46:37,361 --> 00:46:41,127
Most of them, over all
a majority, hydrogen

564
00:46:41,932 --> 00:46:46,733
From those hydrogen atoms,
they because of gravity form clouds,

565
00:46:47,704 --> 00:46:49,365
those clouds, they start condensing

566
00:46:54,711 --> 00:46:57,578
And they get denser and
denser and hotter and hotter,

567
00:46:58,115 --> 00:47:02,484
and as that happens those
clouds start forming galaxies...

568
00:47:02,586 --> 00:47:04,144
...and stars within theses galaxies

569
00:47:04,254 --> 00:47:07,314
which are basically ninety nine
per cent of hydrogen burning

570
00:47:10,861 --> 00:47:15,025
And eventually those stars are going
to have solar systems attached to them,

571
00:47:15,232 --> 00:47:17,894
that is they are going to have
planets orbiting around them and

572
00:47:18,001 --> 00:47:21,493
maybe your going to have a planet
which is close enough so that it is hot...

573
00:47:21,605 --> 00:47:23,800
...but not too far enough
so its not too cold

574
00:47:23,907 --> 00:47:27,502
so that life as we understand
it here on earth could develop

575
00:47:30,013 --> 00:47:32,106
And then we could come back here and

576
00:47:32,216 --> 00:47:37,518
tell the story of the life of
the universe from scratch to the end

577
00:47:44,094 --> 00:47:47,825
From a white hot Big Bang
to planets and people,

578
00:47:47,998 --> 00:47:50,626
is a long and extraordinary journey

579
00:47:52,135 --> 00:47:56,299
From energy to particles,
from particles to atoms,

580
00:47:56,440 --> 00:47:58,931
and from atoms to everything we see...

581
00:47:59,076 --> 00:48:01,101
...it is a remarkable story

582
00:48:03,447 --> 00:48:08,111
It may be difficult to believe that
all the matter in the universe,

583
00:48:08,352 --> 00:48:10,183
came from just energy

584
00:48:12,823 --> 00:48:16,520
But that is the way,
the universe seems to be